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No 12, 15 September 2006, 22 Elul 5766
Canadian Jewry Today: Portrait of a Community in the Process of Change
Ira Robinson
- The Canadian Jewish community is now one of the more significant contemporary
diaspora Jewish communities, numbering approximately 364,000. It is one of the
few communities that is growing demographically.
- The most important trend in Canadian Jewry in the past decades is the rise of
Toronto to preeminent status in terms of Jewish population and the concomitant
decline of Montreal. Toronto now contains nearly half of all Canadian Jews and
Montreal nearly a quarter of them.
- Thirty-five percent of Jewish school-age children in Montreal attend day schools.
Twenty-five percent attend day schools in Toronto. These are, respectively, the
highest and second highest averages for day school attendance reported in North
America.
- American influence was an important factor in Canadian life from the beginning.
Canadian Jewry, like Canada itself, sees a need to define itself by differentiating
itself, politically and culturally, from the American experience.
Why Study the Canadian Jewish Community?
Canada is perhaps not a country that comes to mind first when enumerating
significant contemporary Jewish communities. Yet in any demographic survey of world
Jewry that goes beyond the two mega-centers of Israel and the United States, Canada
figures prominently.
Although it does not have the Jewish population of either France or the countries
of the former Soviet Union (taken together), at approximately 364,0001 Canada's
Jewish community is both a leading diaspora population center and one of the few
second-rank diaspora communities that are actually growing demographically. For
this reason alone, the Jews of Canada are well worth investigating. In addition,
the community is simultaneously a mirror of trends found in Jewish communities
elsewhere, particularly the United States, with which it is tied in many ways, as well
as a distinct society, exercising a measurable influence on the culture and politics
of world Jewry.2
What major trends affect the contemporary Canadian Jewish community?3 Like
Jews in most Western countries, Canadian Jews have recently experienced issues
regarding anti-Semitism. These, however, have been dealt
with adequately by Manuel Prutschi.4 They will not, therefore,
be discussed in detail here; neither will the issue of the
place of Jews in Quebec society,5 nor the Jewish community's
attempts to influence the Canadian government's position on
Israel. A survey, however, of some significant internal trends
in Canadian Jewish life will provide a picture of an important
community at an interesting moment of transition.
Canadian Jewish Geography
Canadians live in a country of immense geographic
space. However, the vast bulk of Canada's population of some
32.4 million6 live in less than a dozen major urban centers, of
which Toronto and Montreal are the largest. Canadian Jews
mirror this pattern and are likewise largely urban. Most live
in either Toronto or Montreal, with smaller concentrations
in Vancouver, Winnipeg, Ottawa, and elsewhere.
Thus the story of Canadian Jewry today is largely,
though not exclusively, a tale of two cities: Montreal and
Toronto. Toronto now contains nearly half of all Canadian
Jews and Montreal nearly a quarter of them. The first
notable thing about Canadian Jews, then, is their strong
demographic concentration in two urban centers. Hence,
the focus here will be mainly on events and trends in
Canada's Jewish population hubs, with the other centers
of Canadian Jewish population getting less attention than
they perhaps deserve.7
The most important trend in Canadian Jewry in the
past decades is the rise of Toronto to preeminent status in
terms of Jewish population and the concomitant decline
of Montreal.8 This trend was set in motion by a political
process in the Province of Quebec often called the "quiet
revolution," which marked the social, political, and economic
empowerment of Quebec's French Canadian population,
often at the expense of the previous anglophone elites. This
process was exacerbated by the rise of Quebec separatist
nationalism, which culminated in the rise to power of the
pro-Quebec independence Parti Québécois in the provincial
election of 1976.9
These events caused a mass exodus of businesses and
individuals from Quebec, among whom were thousands of
Jews. Thus whereas the Jewish population of Montreal in
the 1971 census peaked at approximately 112,000, the next
three decades saw a diminution of more than 17 percent
in the number of Jews in the city to approximately 93,000.
This occurred despite a significant immigration into Montreal
of francophone Jews of Sephardic (North African) origin10
as well as a substantial increase in the city's haredi (ultra-
Orthodox) population.11 Moreover, the raw numbers do not
entirely reflect the fact that most of the Jews who left
Quebec were young and middle-aged adults in their peak
earning and reproductive years, who left behind a community
with a high proportion of seniors.
The fall of Montreal from its hitherto preeminent
position in the Canadian economy as a whole worked to
the decided advantage of Toronto and served to cement
its economic prominence within Canada. This in turn
made Toronto an attractive place for Jewish immigration
for those who had left Montreal. It further made Toronto a
more popular choice than Montreal for Jewish immigrants
from the former Soviet Union, Israel, South Africa, and
other places. Thus, Toronto's Jewish population rose from
approximately 107,000 in 1971 to 179,000 in 2001.12
Governance of the Canadian Jewish Community
The fundamental demographic change in Canadian
Jewry's two largest communities has led to a similarly
fundamental change in the governance of the Canadian
Jewish community. Whereas previously Montreal could be
considered the "capital" of Canadian Jewry, the weight of
political influence has decisively shifted to Toronto.
This process is perhaps most clearly symbolized by the
decline of the Canadian Jewish Congress (CJC).13 CJC was
founded in Montreal in 1919 so as to allow Canadian Jews
to speak with a united, democratic voice on both internal
Canadian issues and international issues bearing on Jews.
It was headquartered in Montreal and considered itself "the
parliament of Canadian Jewry." Daniel Elazar described
CJC as a distinctively Canadian approach to communal
governance.14 As such, it bucked the general North American
trend toward governance of the Jewish community by Jewish
Federation bodies.
Today, however, CJC has declined considerably in
power and is effectively controlled by the Toronto-based
UIA Federations Canada (UIAFC). UIAFC was founded in
June 1998 by the merger of United Israel Appeal Canada
and the Council of Jewish Federations of Canada, which
were modeled after similar organizations in the United
States.15 In the communal reorganization that resulted
from the founding of UIAFC, CJC, which depends on UIAFC
for funding, became an essentially subordinate agency
along with Jewish Immigrant Aid Services of Canada (JIAS)
and National Jewish Campus Life (NJCL). All these agencies
are funded by UIAFC as a part of its "National Collective
Responsibility...to support organizations that strengthen the
national fabric of Canadian Jewry."16
It is no coincidence that in 1999, the year after the
founding of UIAFC, CJC transferred its headquarters building
in Montreal to Concordia University and moved its main
office from Montreal to Ottawa. The latter, while it is the
capital of Canada, has a relatively small Jewish community.
Clearly Montreal's Federation/CJA, which represents Canada's
second largest community and also has significant historical
claims to leadership, has an important voice in UIAFC.17 It is
equally clear, though, that the leadership baton has passed
to Toronto and that Montreal, which maintains an enviable
network of Jewish organizations and services, can no longer
claim to be the Jewish capital of Canada.
Jewish Cultural and Religious Creativity
in Canada
When discussing the cultural life of Canadian Jews,
it is important to understand some of the constitutional
differences between Canada and the United States and
what these signify for the acculturation process of Jews
in Canada. The United States, from its inception, has
adumbrated a basically unitary culture and language,
and immigrants were expected to learn and conform to it.
Canada, by contrast, was founded as a compromise between
two "founding nations," Anglo-Protestant and French-
Catholic, and its founding constitutional document, the
British North America Act of 1867, gave specific guarantees
to each group.18
Therefore, Jews in Canada faced a cultural and linguistic
duality as well as a reluctance by both "founding nations"
to include Jews in their respective polities. This resulted in
a pronounced tendency, in the early twentieth century, for
Jews in Canada to create their own religious and cultural
space. As a consequence, Canadian Jews developed with a
relatively greater sense of autonomy vis-à-vis the established
linguistic and cultural groups.
In the later part of the twentieth century, the Canadian
government supported an official policy of multiculturalism
that encouraged Canadians of all ethnic backgrounds to
assert their cultural distinctiveness in a Canadian "mosaic."19
This policy also rendered Canadian Jews more culturally
identified as Jews.
Equally noteworthy, unlike the United States
Constitution's separation of church and state, which the
American Jewish leadership embraces as a cornerstone of
American Jews' equality of citizenship,20 there is no clear
separation of church and state in the Canadian constitution.
Thus Canadian provincial governments can and do support
religious schools, and, with the exception of the Province of
Ontario, Jewish day schools receive significant governmental
financial support that they do not receive in the United
States.21 Hence, day school education in Canada is relatively
more affordable. As a result, whereas in the United States
12 percent of Jewish children attend Jewish day schools
(considerably more than in past decades), in the Montreal
community fully 34.8 percent of Jewish school-age children
attend day schools and 25.2 percent in Toronto.
These are, respectively, the highest and second highest
averages for day school attendance reported in North
America.22 One concrete result is that, according to the
2001Canadian census, 63,675 Canadians claimed to be able
to speak Hebrew. This is a significant segment of the total
Canadian Jewish population, going far beyond the number
of Israeli immigrants to Canada.23
The more intensive Jewish education in the two major
centers of Canadian Jewry translates as well to the religious
realm. Most surveys show Canadian Jews to be more affiliated
with Orthodoxy24 and less with Conservatism or Reform25 relative to Jews in the United States. Observers of the
Canadian Jewish scene remark, moreover, that Conservative
congregations in Canada tend to remain relatively more
resistant to the trend toward egalitarianism than their
American counterparts. Non-Orthodox congregations in
Canada are likewise relatively slower to accept women
rabbis. With respect to Judaic observance such as Yom Kippur,
Passover Seders, or Hanukkah candles, Canadian Jews tend to
register higher percentages than American Jews.26
Another important difference in religious composition
is the growth of a large Sephardi community, mostly of
Moroccan origin, in Montreal. The religious characteristics
of this community, which embraces a traditionalism not
completely congruent with any standard North American
Jewish denominationalism, require those researching the
Jewish identification of the Montreal Jewish community to
add the category "Traditional Sephardic."27
An ongoing, considerable degree of identification with
Yiddish and Yiddish culture indicates a relatively high level
of Jewish cultural identification on a nonreligious basis. This
is symbolized by the flourishing of KlezKanada, a Klezmer
music workshop and festival held annually near Montreal
that describes itself as "arising from the wellsprings of Jewish
culture and expertise unique to Montreal and Canada,"2828 and
Toronto's Ashkenaz festival.29 Montreal's Dora Wasserman
Yiddish Theatre and Jewish film festivals in Vancouver,
Toronto, and Montreal all testify to the continued popularity
of secular Jewish culture in Canada. Memorialization and
ritualization of the Holocaust similarly has loomed large as
a factor of Jewish identity in Canada. According to Franklin
Bialystok, however, the emergence of the Holocaust as an
issue for Canadian Jews had a somewhat different trajectory
than in the United States.30
Canadian Jewish Studies
One of the most significant recent intellectual
developments affecting Canadian Jewry is the rise of
Canadian Jewish studies as an academic field, which has
largely paralleled the development of Jewish studies in
the United States.31 What has emerged from the Canadian
academy, however, in the past decade or so is a distinctive
focus on the Canadian Jewish experience from a historical,
sociological, and literary perspective. This trend has naturally
involved mostly Jewish academics but has also interested
some French Canadian intellectuals.32
The field has been institutionalized through the
transformation of the Canadian Jewish Historical Society,
founded in 1976 as a largely lay-based group supporting
the research of local rabbis, CJC officials, and amateur
historians,33 into a largely academic group called the
Association for Canadian Jewish Studies. The association
supports a growing number of professors and students
devoted to this developing field, as well as a journal
dedicated to academic scholarship in the area, Canadian
Jewish Studies.34
In this period there have also emerged chairs in
Canadian Jewish Studies at York and Concordia universities,
an Institute for Canadian Jewish Studies at Concordia,35 and
a program in Jewish Canadian Studies at the University of
Ottawa. Evidently, one of the major aims of the nascent
field of Canadian Jewish studies is to establish a separate
Canadian Jewish dynamic. One of its most distinguished
practitioners, Gerald Tulchinsky, notes that:
Canadian Jewish history is a subject in its own
right, not a branch or pale reflection of the Jewish
experience in the United States. Its contours
were shaped by Canadian conditions, and did not
necessarily reflect occurrences and trends that took
place first among mainstream Americans and, years
later, were experienced by their northern cousins. The
Americanization of the Jews - their gradual or rapid
adaptation to and acceptance in the mainstream
of American culture, and the development of what
might be called the American Jewish symbiosis - was
not necessarily mirrored in Canada. The Canadian
Jew who becomes chief justice of the Supreme Court
of Canada (Bora Laskin), or governor of the Bank of
Canada (Louis Rasminsky), or a member of a federal
Cabinet (Herb Gray), or a highly decorated officer in
the Royal Canadian Air Force (Sydney Shulemson), or a
leading literary figure (Mordecai Richler), is not simply
the northern equivalent of an American Jew like Justice
Brandeis, Henry Morgenthau, Bernard Baruch, Admiral
Rickover, or Philip Roth.36
Some Conclusions
Tulchinsky's statement clearly indicates that Canadian
Jewry, like Canada itself, sees a need to define itself by
differentiating itself politically and culturally from the
American experience. This is not entirely easy to do because
American influence, which was an important factor in
Canadian life from the beginning, took on even greater
proportions with Britain's twentieth-century retreat from
empire and the corresponding rise in American power and
influence worldwide. It is clear that the Jews of the United
States have exerted considerable influence on Canadian
Jewry, not least because the Canadian Jewish community
is so much smaller and the border between the two countries
has historically been relatively open to the movement of
people and their ideas.
To take but one example, Canada possesses no major
institution for the training of rabbis and professional Jewish
community workers.37 This means Canadian synagogues and
other Jewish institutions are led by those trained elsewhere,
especially in the United States and Israel. Although some
are indeed Canadians who left Canada for their professional
training and returned, mostly the positions are taken by
non-Canadians who have to learn the differences and
similarities of the Canadian Jewish community with Jewish
communities elsewhere.
For most casual observers, the major difference
between the Canadian and American Jewish communities
is a sort of "time lag" in which the situation of the former
community seems to lag a generation behind the realities
of the latter. As Harold Waller put it, "trends in community
life probably appear in Canada about twenty to twenty-five
years later than they do in the US."38 As demonstrated here,
this phenomenon is no accident. Instead it stems from factors
in the Canadian polity that have given the Canadian Jewish
community a different valence and a different approach to
the issues of contemporary Jewish life.
* * *
Notes
1. This is the estimate given in Sergio DellaPergola, "World Jewish
Population 2002," American Jewish Year Book (New York: American
Jewish Committee, 2002), 102, www.jafi.org.il/education/100/
concepts/demography/demtables.html#3. The Canadian census
of 2001 lists 329,995 Jews by religion and 348,605 Jews by
ethnicity, www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/home/index.cfm.
For an analysis of the 2001 census figures, see Ron Csillag, "Jews
Up 3.7% Census Shows," Canadian Jewish News, 22 May 2003,
www.cjnews.com/viewarticle.asp?id=470&s=1.
2. The most recent sociological analysis of the Canadian Jewish
community is Morton Weinfeld, Like Everyone Else - but Different:
The Paradoxical Success of Canadian Jews (Toronto: McClelland
& Stewart, 2001). Gerald Tulchinsky has written the most recent
historical study of Canadian Jewry in two volumes: Taking Root:
The Origins of the Canadian Jewish Community (Toronto: Lester,
1992), and Branching Out: The Transformation of the Canadian
Jewish Community (Toronto: Stoddart, 1998). For a guide to
the literature on the subject, see Ira Robinson, "Canada," in
Michael Terry, ed., Reader's Guide to Judaism (Chicago: Fitzroy
Dearborn, 2000), 100-01. The best current bibliography on the
Canadian Jewish community, compiled by Michael Brown,
Richard Menkis, Benjamin Schlesinger, and Stuart Schoenfeld,
was published as a special number of Canadian Jewish Studies,
Vols. 7-8 (1999-2000).
3. For a convenient and comprehensive chronicle of significant
events in the Canadian Jewish community, see the article "Canada"
in the volumes of the American Jewish Year Book. For the past two
decades this article has been ably written by Harold Waller.
4. Manuel Prutschi, "Anti-Semitism in Canada," Jewish Political
Studies Review, Vol. 16, Nos. 3-4 (Fall 2004), www.jcpa.org/phas/
phas-prutschi-f04.htm
5. Cf. Pierre Anctil, Gerard Bouchard, and Ira Robinson, eds., Juifs
et Canadiens Français dans la société Québécoise (Sillery, QC:
Septentrion, 2000). [French]
6. Estimated population of Canada as of 1 January 2006 according
to Statistics Canada, www.statcan.ca/Daily/English/060328/
d060328e.htm.
7. As Harold Waller notes,
the dominance of community life by Montreal and
Toronto has long been a source of resentment in the West,
somewhat paralleling developments in Canadian politics.
But communities like Winnipeg, Calgary, Edmonton, and
even Vancouver are just not large enough to give them
any real weight compared to Toronto. Efforts are made
from time to time to demonstrate recognition that such
communities are an integral part of Canadian Jewry, but
demographic realities generally predominate.
Harold Waller, "A Community Transformed: the National Picture,"
in Ruth Klein and Frank Dimant, eds., From Immigration to
Integration: The Canadian Jewish Experience - A Millennium Edition
(Toronto: B'nai Brith Canada, 2001), 158, www.bnaibrith.ca/
institute/millennium/millennium00.html.
8. For a largely upbeat evaluation of the contemporary situation of
Montreal's Jewish community, see Lisa Keys, "Jews Thrive in La
Belle Province despite Separatist Movement," Forward, 14 June
2002, www.forward.com/issues/2002/02.06.14/news7.html.
9. For background on the history of Quebec in this era, see Claude
Belanger, "Events, Issues and Concepts of Quebec History,"
www2.marianopolis.edu/quebechistory/events/quiet.htm.
10. Charles Shahar and Elizabeth Perez, 2001 Census Analysis: The
Jewish Community of Montreal, Part VI, The Sephardic Community
(Montreal: Federation/CJA, 2005), www.federationcja.org/
index.php/jewish_montreal/demographics/?langID=1.
11. Charles Shahar, A Comprehensive Study of the Frum Community
of Greater Montreal (Montreal: Federation/CJA and Ahavas
Chesed, 2003).
12. www.jewishtoronto.com/content_display.html?ArticleID=185657.
13. For a portrait of CJC in its years of decline, see Ira Robinson,
"Virtual Reality Comes to Canadian Jewry: The Case of the
Canadian Jewish Congress Plenary," Jewish Political Studies
Review, Vol. 11, Nos. 1-2 (Spring 1999): 63-73, www.jcpa.org/
cjc/cjc-robinson-s99.htm.
14. Daniel J. Elazar, "Constitutional Documents," in Daniel J. Elazar,
Jonathan Sarna, and Rela G. Monson, eds., A Double Bond: The
Constitutional Documents of American Jewry (Lanham, MD:
University Press of America, 1992), 31. Cf. Daniel Elazar and
Harold Waller, Maintaining Consensus: The Canadian Jewish
Polity in the Postwar World (Lanham, MD: University Press of
America, 1990), 42ff.
15. www.jewishcanada.org/content_display.html?ArticleID=68440.
16. www.jewishcanada.org/content_display.html?ArticleID=68369.
17. Thus, in May 2006, both the current president of UIAFC, Stanley
Plotnick, and its executive vice-president, Maxyne Finkelstein, had
served in similar capacities in Montreal's Federation/CJA.
18. Cf. Andrew Kirn, "The Absence of Pan-Canadian Civil Religion:
Plurality, Duality and Conflict in Symbols of Canadian Culture,"
Sociology of Religion, Vol. 54 (1993): 257-75.
19. Howard Adelman and John H. Simpson, eds., Multiculturalism,
Jews, and Identities in Canada (Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1996).
Cf. Victoria M. Esses and R.C. Gardner, "Multiculturalism in
Canada: Context and Current Status," Canadian Journal of
Behavioural Science (1996), www.cpa.ca/cjbsnew/1996/ful_
edito.html. A convenient summary of the issue may be found in
the online publication "Multiculturalism in Canada," produced
by the Canadian Studies Program of Mount Allison University,
www.mta.ca/faculty/arts-letters/canadian_studies/english/about/
multi/index.htm.
20. For an expression of this ideology, see the American Jewish
Committee's pamphlet Separation of Church and State: Protecting
Religious Liberty in America Today (April 2005).
21. This issue has recently been prominent in Ontario politics.
Nevertheless, Jewish day schools in Toronto are thriving. Cf.
Stuart Schoenfeld, "Transnational Religion, Religious Schools,
and the Dilemma of Public Funding for Jewish Education: The
Case of Ontario," Jewish Political Studies Review, Vol. 11, Nos.
1-2 (Spring 1999); Alex Pomson, "Jewish Day School Growth
in Toronto: Freeing Policy and Research from the Constraints
of Conventional Sociological Wisdom," Canadian Journal of
Education, Vol. 27 (2002): 379-98. On the complex issue of Jewish
schools in Montreal, see Arlette Corcos, Montréal, les juifs et l'école
(Sillery, QC: Septentrion, 1997).
22. Jewish Life in Greater Toronto Study: Introduction and
Methodology, 22, www.jewishtoronto.net/content_display.html
?ArticleID=185657.
23. The author is indebted to Prof. Leo Davids of York University for
bringing this statistic to his attention. The Israeli community in
Toronto supports a weekly newspaper, Shalom Toronto.
24. On Orthodoxy in Toronto, see Etan Diamond, And I Will Dwell in
Their Midst: Orthodox Jews in Suburbia (Chapel Hill: University of
North Carolina Press, 2000).
25. On Reform Judaism in Canada, see Richard Menkis, "Both
Peripheral and Central: Toward a History of Reform Judaism in
Canada," CCAR Journal, Vol. 51 (Fall 2004): 43-56.
26. Harold Waller, "A Community Transformed: The National Picture,"
in Klein and Dimant, From Immigration to Integration, 158.
27. Charles Shahar remarks that this category was added "since
Sephardim may not necessarily describe themselves as either
Orthodox or Conservative Jews." See his A Survey of Jewish Life
in Montreal, Part 2 (Montreal: Federation/CJA, May, 1997), 4.
28. www.klezkanada.com/site/index.php.
29. www.ashkenazfestival.com.
30. Franklin Bialystok, Delayed Impact: The Holocaust and the
Canadian Jewish Community (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-
Queen's University Press, 2000).
31. On Jewish studies in Canada, see Michael Brown, A Guide to the
Study of Jewish Civilization in Canadian Universities (Jerusalem
and Toronto: International Center for the University Teaching
of Jewish Civilization of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem
and Centre for Jewish Studies at York University, 1998). On
Jewish studies in Quebec, see Ira Robinson, "La Tradition et la
littérature juives," in Jean-Marc Larouche and Guy Ménard, eds.,
LÉtude de la religion au Québec (Québec: Presses de l'Université
Laval, 2001), 77-85 [French], ww.erudit.org/livre/larouchej/2001/
livrel4_div10.htm.
32. Ira Robinson, "Jewish Studies in French Canada," Proceedings of
the World Congress of Jewish Studies (forthcoming).
33. On this process, see Ira Robinson, "David Rome as an Historian
of Canadian Jewry," Canadian Jewish Studies, Vol. 3 (1995): 1-
10; idem, "Dr. Joseph Kage: Interpreter of Canada and Its Jews,"
Canadian Jewish Studies, Vol. 6 (1998): 81-87.
34. www.acjs-aejc.ca/.
35. www.web2.concordia.ca/jchair/.
36. Gerald Tulchinsky, "The Canadian Jewish Experience: A Distinct
Personality Emerges," in Klein and Dimant, From Immigration to
Integration, 19.
37. It does possess, at McGill and York universities, Jewish teacher
training programs. These, however, do not satisfy the demand for
teachers in Canadian Jewish schools, which often still depend on
personnel from the United States and Israel.
38. Harold Waller, "A Community Transformed: The National Picture,"
in Klein and Dimant, From Immigration to Integration, p. 162.
* * *
Ira Robinson is professor of Judaic studies in the Department
of Religion of Concordia University, Montreal, Quebec. He is an
associate of the JCPA. He is also president of the Canadian Society
for Jewish Studies and past president of the Association for Canadian
Jewish Studies. His most recent publication is Not Written in Stone:
Canadian Jews, Constitutions and Constitutionalism in Canada
(2003), which he coedited with Daniel Elazar and Michael Brown.
His latest book, forthcoming from the University of Calgary Press,
is Rabbis and Their Community: Studies in the Eastern European
Orthodox Rabbinate in Montreal, 1896-1930.
Manfred Gerstenfeld, Publisher • Chaya Herskovic, Editor • Howard Weisband, Associate Editor • Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs (Registered Amuta), 13 Tel-Hai St., Jerusalem 92107, Israel; Tel. 972-2-5619281, Fax. 972-2-5619112, Email: jcpa@netvision.net.il • In U.S.A.: Center for Jewish Community Studies, 5800 Park Heights Avenue, Baltimore, MD 21215 USA; Tel. (410) 664-5222, Fax. (410) 664-1228 • Website: www.jcpa.org • Copyright. ISSN: 0792-7304
The opinions expressed herein do not necessarily reflect
those of the Board of Fellows of the Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs.
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